Chapter 1 Resources And Development

In our environment, anything that can be used to meet our needs is considered a resource. However, for something to be classified as a resource, it must meet certain criteria: it should be technologically accessible, economically feasible to obtain and use, and culturally acceptable.

The transformation of materials from our environment into resources involves a dynamic relationship between nature, technology, and institutions. Human beings act as crucial components in this process. They interact with nature using technology and create institutions to facilitate economic development. This suggests that resources are not simply free gifts of nature; they are created and given function through human activities.

Resources can be classified in several ways based on different characteristics:

1. On the basis of origin:
   • Biotic: Obtained from the biosphere and have life (e.g., flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock).
   • Abiotic: Composed of non-living things (e.g., rocks, metals, water, air).
2. On the basis of exhaustibility:
   • Renewable: Resources that can be replenished or reproduced by physical, chemical, or mechanical processes (e.g., solar and wind energy, water, forests, wildlife).
   • Non-renewable: Resources that take a very long geological time to form. They cannot be easily replenished once consumed (e.g., minerals, fossil fuels).
3. On the basis of ownership:
   • Individual: Owned privately by individuals (e.g., plots, houses, plantations, wells owned by farmers).
   • Community-owned: Accessible to all members of a community (e.g., village ponds, public parks, playgrounds, grazing grounds).
   • National: Belonging to the nation. The government has legal powers to acquire even private property for public good. All minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, land within political boundaries, and oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles ($\sim$22.2 km) from the coast belong to the nation.
   • International: Resources regulated by international institutions. Oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to the open ocean, and no individual country can use them without permission from international bodies.
4. On the basis of status of development:
   • Potential: Resources found in a region that have not been utilised (e.g., solar and wind energy development in Rajasthan and Gujarat).
   • Developed: Resources that are surveyed, and their quality and quantity determined for utilisation. Development depends on technology and feasibility.
   • Stock: Resources that have the potential to satisfy human needs but lack the appropriate technology to access them (e.g., water, being a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, could be a source of energy, but we lack the technology to use it for this purpose).
   • Reserves: A subset of the stock that can be utilised with existing technology, but their use has been postponed for future needs.

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Development Of Resources

Resources are fundamental for human survival and for maintaining a high quality of life. Initially, resources were widely believed to be free gifts of nature, leading to their unregulated and excessive use. This indiscriminate exploitation has resulted in significant problems:

• Depletion of resources driven by the greed of a few individuals.
• Unequal distribution of resources, leading to their accumulation in fewer hands and consequently dividing society into 'haves' and 'have-nots' (rich and poor).
• Widespread exploitation has caused global ecological crises, including global warming, depletion of the ozone layer, environmental pollution, and degradation of land.

To ensure a sustained quality of life for all and global peace, a fair and equitable distribution of resources is crucial. Continuing resource depletion driven by a few individuals and nations poses a serious threat to the future of our planet.

Therefore, careful resource planning is absolutely essential for the sustainable existence of all life forms on Earth. Sustainable existence is a core element of sustainable development.

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Sustainable Development

Sustainable economic development is defined as achieving development without causing damage to the environment. Furthermore, it stresses that current developmental activities should not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

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Rio De Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

In June 1992, a landmark event took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil – the first International Earth Summit. Over 100 heads of states attended this summit, which was convened to address pressing global environmental protection and socioeconomic development issues. Participating leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention endorsed global principles for forests and adopted a comprehensive action plan known as Agenda 21.

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Agenda 21

Agenda 21 is a declaration signed by world leaders at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. Its main goal is to achieve global sustainable development. It outlines an agenda for global cooperation, based on common interests, mutual needs, and shared responsibilities, to combat environmental damage, poverty, and disease. A key objective of Agenda 21 is that every local government is encouraged to formulate and implement its own local Agenda 21, tailoring the global goals to local contexts.

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Resource Planning

Given the importance of resources and the risks associated with their unsustainable use, planning is widely accepted as an effective strategy for using resources judiciously. Resource planning is particularly crucial in a country like India due to its immense diversity in resource availability.

India presents a varied picture: some regions are rich in specific resources but lack others, some are relatively self-sufficient, while others face severe shortages of vital resources. For example, states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh are abundant in minerals and coal, but Arunachal Pradesh, despite rich water resources, lags in infrastructure development. Rajasthan is well-endowed with solar and wind energy potential but is deficient in water. The cold desert region of Ladakh, culturally rich, lacks water, infrastructure, and certain essential minerals. This heterogeneity necessitates a balanced approach to resource planning at national, state, regional, and local levels.

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Resource Planning In India

Resource planning in India is a complex process that has been a key focus since the launch of the First Five Year Plan after Independence. The process involves three main stages:

1. Identification and inventory of resources: This requires conducting surveys, mapping, and making qualitative and quantitative estimations and measurements of resources across different regions.
2. Evolving a planning structure: This involves establishing an appropriate technological infrastructure, skilled workforce, and institutional framework necessary to implement resource development plans.
3. Matching resource development plans with national development plans: Ensuring that regional or sectoral resource plans are aligned and integrated with the overall national development goals and strategies.

The mere availability of resources is a necessary condition for a region's development, but it is not sufficient. For resources to contribute to development, they must be accompanied by appropriate technological advancements, improvements in the quality of human resources, and relevant institutional changes. Historically, colonising countries, with their higher technological development, were able to exploit resources in colonies and establish dominance, showing that technology and institutions are critical factors alongside resource availability.

India's own experience during different phases of colonisation underscores that development depends not just on having resources, but also on the level of technology, the quality of human capital, and the historical context of the people.

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Conservation Of Resources

Resources are vital for all developmental activities. However, using them without careful consideration (irrational consumption) and excessive use (over-utilisation) can lead to significant socio-economic and environmental problems. To prevent these issues, resource conservation at various levels is critically important. The need for conservation has been a concern for thinkers and leaders throughout history.

Mahatma Gandhi, for example, famously expressed his views on resource conservation, stating: "There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed." He attributed resource depletion globally to the greed of individuals and the exploitative nature of modern technology. Gandhi advocated for 'production by the masses' rather than 'mass production'.

At the international level, formal advocacy for resource conservation began systematically with the Club of Rome in 1968. Later, in 1974, E.F. Schumacher's book 'Small is Beautiful' presented Gandhian philosophy on this topic. A major global contribution to resource conservation was the Brundtland Commission Report of 1987, which introduced the concept of 'Sustainable Development' as a means for resource conservation. This report was published as a book titled 'Our Common Future'. The principles of sustainable development were further endorsed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, notably through Agenda 21.

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Land Resources

Land is a natural resource of fundamental importance. It is where we live, conduct economic activities, and rely upon for essential needs like food, shelter, and clothing. Land supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic systems, and transport/communication networks. However, land is a finite resource, meaning its total area is fixed. Therefore, its use requires careful planning.

India's landmass comprises a variety of physical features:

• Plains: Account for about 43% of the total land area, providing suitable conditions for agriculture and industry.
• Mountains: Cover 30% of the total surface area, ensuring the perennial flow of some rivers, supporting tourism, and having ecological significance.
• Plateaus: Make up 27% of the country's area, containing rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels, and forests.

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Land Utilisation

Land resources are used for various purposes. These can be broadly categorised as follows:

1. Forests: Areas designated as forest cover.
2. Land not available for cultivation:
   • Barren and waste land (e.g., rocky, arid, desert areas).
   • Land used for non-agricultural purposes (e.g., buildings, roads, factories).
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
   • Permanent pastures and grazing land.
   • Land under trees and groves (not counted in net sown area).
   • Culturable waste land (land left uncultivated for more than five agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands: Land left uncultivated temporarily to regain fertility.
   • Current fallow (left uncultivated for one or less than one agricultural year).
   • Other than current fallow (left uncultivated for 1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area: The physical area of land where crops are planted and harvested in an agricultural year. The Gross Cropped Area includes the area sown more than once in a year plus the net sown area.

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Land Use Pattern In India

The pattern of land use in India is influenced by both physical factors (topography, climate, soil types) and human factors (population density, technological capabilities, culture, and traditions). India's total geographical area is 3.28 million sq km, but detailed land use data is available for only about 93% of this area. This is because land use reporting is not fully done in most northeastern states (except Assam) and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir under the occupation of Pakistan and China have not been surveyed.

Comparing land use data over time reveals some marginal changes. The percentage of Net Sown Area and land under forests changed only slightly between 1960-61 and 2014-15. The land under permanent pasture has also decreased. This raises concerns about feeding the large cattle population and the potential consequences.

Some land classified as 'other than current fallow' is often of poor quality or requires high cultivation costs. These lands are sometimes cultivated, but only once or twice over several years. If these are included in the Net Sown Area, the total percentage for India rises to about 54% of the total reporting area.

The percentage of Net Sown Area varies significantly across states. It is over 80% of the total area in Punjab and Haryana, indicating intensive cultivation, but less than 10% in states like Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and the Andaman Nicobar Islands, suggesting different land use patterns, perhaps due to topography, forest cover, or other factors.

The forest area in India (currently lower than desired) is significantly below the 33% of geographical area recommended by the National Forest Policy (1952) for ecological balance. The livelihood of millions living on the fringes of forests depends on these areas.

A portion of land is categorized as waste land (rocky, arid, desert areas) and land used for non-agricultural purposes (settlements, roads, industries). Continuous and inappropriate use of land over long periods, without proper conservation measures, has resulted in widespread land degradation, leading to serious impacts on both society and the environment.

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Land Degradation And Conservation Measures

Land degradation is a significant problem in India, impacting both society and the environment. It refers to the decline in the quality and productivity of land resources. Our dependence on land for basic needs makes its degradation particularly concerning.

While natural forces contribute, certain human activities have accelerated land degradation:

• Deforestation: Removal of forest cover exposes soil to erosion and leads to loss of biodiversity.
• Over grazing: Excessive grazing by livestock removes vegetation cover, leaving soil vulnerable.
• Mining and Quarrying: These activities abandon sites with deep scars and overburden material, causing severe degradation, particularly in states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha.
• Over irrigation: In states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, excessive irrigation leads to waterlogging, increasing salinity and alkalinity in the soil, making it less fertile.
• Mineral processing: Activities like grinding limestone (cement industry) or calcite and soapstone (ceramic industry) generate large quantities of dust. This dust settles on land, hindering the infiltration of water into the soil.
• Industrial effluents: Waste discharged from industries has become a major source of land and water pollution in many areas.

Fortunately, there are numerous methods to tackle land degradation and conserve this vital resource:

• Afforestation: Planting trees helps stabilise soil and prevents erosion.
• Proper management of grazing: Controlling where and how livestock graze can help vegetation regrow.
• Stabilisation of sand dunes: Planting thorny bushes helps to fix sand dunes, particularly effective in arid regions.
• Management of waste lands: Implementing suitable practices to reclaim and use waste lands productively.
• Control of mining activities: Regulating mining and ensuring post-mining site reclamation.
• Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents: Treating industrial waste before discharging it to reduce pollution of land and water, especially near industrial and suburban areas.

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Soil As A Resource

Soil is arguably the most important renewable natural resource. It serves as the medium for plant growth and supports diverse living organisms on Earth, acting as a 'living system'. The formation of soil is a very slow process; it takes millions of years to form even a few centimeters of soil depth.

Several factors influence soil formation:

• Relief: Altitude and slope affect drainage and erosion.
• Parent rock or bed rock: Determines the soil's composition, texture, and colour.
• Climate: Temperature, rainfall, and weathering processes influence soil formation.
• Vegetation and other forms of life: Provide organic matter (humus) and influence biological activity.
• Time: The duration over which soil formation processes occur.

Natural forces like temperature changes, water flow, wind, glaciers, and the activities of decomposers contribute to breaking down rocks and forming soil. Chemical and organic changes within the soil are also crucial. Soil consists of both organic materials (humus) derived from decomposed living matter and inorganic materials from weathered rocks.

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Classification Of Soils

India's varied relief features, landforms, climatic conditions, and vegetation types have led to the development of numerous soil types. Soils are classified based on factors like their formation process, colour, thickness, texture, age, and chemical and physical properties.

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Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soil is the most widespread and significant soil type in India. The vast northern plains are formed entirely of alluvial soil deposited by the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river systems. These soils also extend into Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow belt and are found in the eastern coastal plains, particularly in the deltas formed by the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers.

Alluvial soil contains varying proportions of sand, silt, and clay. Near the river valleys, soil particles are larger, becoming coarser in the upper reaches and near the break of slope. Such coarse soils are common in piedmont plains like Duars, Chos, and Terai.

Based on age, alluvial soils are classified as:

• Bangar (Old Alluvial): Older alluvial soil with a higher concentration of Kanker nodules (calcareous concretions). Less fertile than Khadar.
• Khadar (New Alluvial): Newer alluvial soil, generally found in floodplains. It has finer particles and is more fertile than Bangar.

Overall, alluvial soils are highly fertile, containing good proportions of potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, making them ideal for crops like sugarcane, paddy, wheat, and various cereals and pulses. Their high fertility supports intensive cultivation and dense populations in these regions. In drier areas, alluvial soils can be more alkaline but can become productive with proper treatment and irrigation.

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Black Soil

Black soils are characterised by their black colour and are also known as regur soils. They are considered ideal for cotton cultivation and are thus also called black cotton soil. Climatic conditions and the parent rock material are believed to be key factors in their formation.

This soil type is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region, formed from lava flows and spread across the northwest Deccan plateau. Black soils cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh, extending along the Godavari and Krishna valleys in the southeast.

Black soils are composed of extremely fine, clayey material, giving them a high capacity to retain moisture. They are rich in nutrients like calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, and lime, but are generally poor in phosphoric content. Black soils develop deep cracks during hot weather, which helps in aeration. However, they become very sticky when wet, making cultivation difficult unless tilled immediately after the first rains.

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Red And Yellow Soils

Red soil forms on crystalline igneous rocks in areas with low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau. These soils are also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, the southern middle Ganga plain, and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. The reddish colour is due to the diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. When these soils occur in a hydrated form, they appear yellow.

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Laterite Soil

The term 'Laterite' comes from the Latin word 'later', meaning brick. Laterite soil develops in tropical and subtropical climates characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons. This soil formation results from intense leaching (removal of soluble minerals by water) caused by heavy rainfall.

Lateritic soils are typically deep to very deep and acidic (pH less than 6.0). They are generally deficient in plant nutrients. They are mostly found in southern states, the Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, parts of West Bengal, and the North-east. In areas with deciduous and evergreen forests, they can be rich in humus, but in areas with sparse vegetation or semi-arid climates, humus content is low. Due to their location on slopes, they are prone to erosion and degradation. However, with appropriate soil conservation techniques in hilly areas (like Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu), laterite soils are suitable for growing tea and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala are particularly good for crops like cashew nut.

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Arid Soils

Arid soils have colours ranging from red to brown. Their texture is generally sandy, and they are saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content can be very high, allowing for common salt extraction through water evaporation. Due to the dry climate and high temperatures, evaporation is rapid, resulting in a lack of humus and moisture in these soils. The lower layers of arid soils often have Kankar formations (calcareous layers) due to increasing calcium content downwards, which restricts water infiltration. However, with proper irrigation techniques, these soils can become cultivable, as demonstrated in western Rajasthan.

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Forest Soils

Forest soils are found in hilly and mountainous regions where sufficient rainforests are present. The texture of these soils varies depending on the specific mountain environment. They tend to be loamy and silty on valley sides and coarser-grained on the upper slopes. In snow-covered areas of the Himalayas, these soils are acidic with low humus content and are susceptible to erosion. However, soils in the lower parts of valleys, especially on river terraces and alluvial fans, are fertile.

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Soil Erosion And Soil Conservation

Soil erosion refers to the removal of the soil cover and its subsequent washing away. Soil formation and erosion are natural processes that usually occur simultaneously, maintaining a balance between the two. However, this balance can be disrupted by certain human activities and accelerated natural forces.

Human activities that disturb the balance and lead to soil erosion include:

• Deforestation
• Over-grazing
• Construction
• Mining

Natural forces that cause soil erosion are wind, glaciers, and water. Running water is a significant agent of erosion:

• Gully Erosion: Running water cuts through clayey soils, forming deep channels called gullies. The land becomes unsuitable for cultivation and is termed 'bad land', such as the ravines in the Chambal basin.
• Sheet Erosion: Sometimes, water flows as a sheet over large sloped areas, washing away the topsoil.

Wind erosion occurs when wind blows away loose soil from flat or sloping land. Defective farming methods can also contribute to soil erosion. Ploughing incorrectly, such as ploughing up and down slopes, creates channels that facilitate rapid water flow and erosion.

Various methods can be employed for soil conservation and preventing erosion:

• Contour ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines of a slope helps to decelerate the flow of water down the slope.
• Terrace cultivation: Cutting steps or terraces on slopes restricts erosion and is well-developed in the Western and central Himalayas.
• Strip cropping: Dividing large fields into strips and planting strips of grass between crops. This breaks up the force of the wind.
• Shelter belts: Planting rows of trees to create shelter also reduces wind erosion. These shelter belts are particularly effective in stabilising sand dunes and desert areas, like in western India.